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LEARNING TO LEARN: BECOMING A SELF -GROWER 145
EXPERIENCE 6: M ETHODOLOGIES: UNLOCKING PROCESS KNOWLEDGE READING
added from literally centuries of experience in every culture with arts, crafts, mechanics, management,
and professional applications of many kinds. There are methodologies on thinking (e.g., DeBono, 1994),
nursing procedures for effective stroke unit procedures (e.g., Langhorne & Pollock, 2002), and engineer-
ing methodologies for safety evaluation of chemicals (e.g., Smith, Janfunen, & Goldstein, 2002). Method-
ologies have universal features that are presented in Table 1.
Table 1 Distinctive Features of Methodologies
Methodologies:
• Are logical and practical rule-of-thumb (i.e., heuristic) guides for complex processes
• Involve set-up, performance, and reflection
• Are self-help tools
• Are a “bridge” for guiding learners from incomplete, tacit knowledge to systematic, assessed knowl-
edge
• Involve at least four steps, each of which is essential for completion of a quality process
• Involve integration of skills from multiple domains
• Require flexibility about the amount of attention each step receives in a given task context
• Facilitate metacognitive understanding of a process through the repeated assessment of steps and
outcomes
• Speed communication between learners and educators or between advanced learners
• Internalization of several methodologies will greatly increase the ease of learning additional ones
Reasons for Currently Limited Use of Methodologies
Educators rightly express concerns about using methodologies for at least four good reasons. First, it is
realistic to be concerned that novices may use methodologies as rulebooks that limit their growth and
ownership of the learning processes. Novices tend to want to take shortcuts when they are challenged in
new arenas requiring complex performances that are difficult to learn. This can easily occur if learners use
methodologies as directive shortcuts that reduce their engagement in the thinking and problem solving
essential for achieving the desired internalization of the process. Novices want a “silver bullet” solution
rather than a full, deep mastery of the process.
Second, experts have already internalized a stronger, richer process than the methodology. Experts want
to transfer this richness to the learner and may believe that they can produce a better version of the meth-
odology. In addition, experts are usually concerned more about helping novices learn several methods for
approaching a task than firmly establishing steps for only one basic process.
Third, educators may assume on the basis of experience and from observation that processes work mainly
in specific contexts. Experience with learners tends to support the hypothesis that they often do not trans-
fer knowledge from course to course or from courses to work settings. Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger, &
Tarule (1996) provide extensive interview evidence of this difficulty, especially in adults without growth-
enhancing opportunities.
Fourth, some educators may prefer to work on processes without the constraints of system or outcome
specifications, timing, and criteria. Negroponte (2003), for example, argues that the narrow focus of some